The Dark Triad and Attachment: Understanding Manipulative Personality Traits

If you’ve been researching the psychology of relationships and personalities, you may have already come across the “Dark Triad” – a set of three “socially malevolent” personality traits that are distinct from, but connected to, each other. One study found that 7% of its 35,270 participants could be grouped into a “dark” personality subtype [1] – but what is the Dark Triad, is it a diagnosis, and how does it affect relationships?

In this article, we’ll explain the Dark Triad and explore its psychological roots, its links to attachment style, and how to respond when the Dark Triad shows up.

What is the Dark Triad?

The Dark Triad was first coined by Paulhus and Williams in 2002 [2], to help identify whether these 3 personality traits, which had already been identified as prominent “offensive yet non-pathological” in previous literature, were actually the same thing. They found that all 3 were overlapping but ultimately separate from each other:

• Sub-clinical narcissism: grandiosity, entitlement, a sense of superiority.
• Sub-clinical psychopathy: high impulsivity and thrill-seeking, low anxiety and low empathy.
• Machiavellianism: cold and manipulative behavior towards others.

The term “sub-clinical” is used to differentiate narcissistic and psychopathic traits in normal populations from people with Narcissistic Personality Disorder or Antisocial Personality Disorder (which is often linked with psychopathy – psychopathy is not a DSM diagnosis) [3].

This is important because it separates the Dark Triad from clinical diagnoses – it’s not a diagnosable disorder, but a construct used to help social psychologists conduct their research. These traits exist on a spectrum which we all fall on somewhere.

The D-Factor: The Core of Dark Personality

Over 20 years on from the original Dark Triad paper, researchers have suggested lots of additional “dark” personality traits. One 2018 study found that 9 traits shared a “common dark core” [4]:

• Narcissism
• Psychopathy
• Machiavellianism
• Egoism
• Moral Disengagement
• Psychological Entitlement
• Sadism
• Self-Interest
• Spitefulness

Researchers called this “the Dark Factor of Personality”, or “D-factor”, defined as “the general tendency to maximize one’s individual utility – disregarding, accepting, or malevolently provoking disutility for others – accompanied by beliefs that serve as justifications”. In other words, a tendency to try to achieve one’s goals even if it comes at a cost to others.

The Psychology Behind Dark Triad Traits

Lots of things influence personality development, including the development of Dark Triad traits. Your genetics, temperament, environment, and early experiences are all thought to play a role in your personality.

As we’ll discuss the link between Dark Triad traits and attachment, we’ll dive deeper into how early experiences in particular might shape Dark Triad development – but this focus doesn’t negate the impact of other influences.

Dark Triad vs. Clinical Disorders

It’s worth reiterating that the Dark Triad is not a clinical diagnosis and is not the same as clinical disorders such as personality disorders. For a personality disorder to be diagnosed, traits must be so extreme that they cause significant distress or impairment in daily life, and the diagnosis must be given by a licensed mental health practitioner.

How Childhood Shapes Dark Triad Traits

Attachment theory states that the way our first attachment figures treat us shapes our internal working models of ourselves and the world – in other words, they shape our expectations about how other people will treat us and whether our emotional needs will be met. This can affect our personality development as well as our attachment style.

We can theorize that the same things that lead to attachment insecurity – absent or confusing caregivers who don’t reliably meet our needs – could lead to the development of Dark Triad traits. To back this up, research has found that early parental care leads to our different attachment patterns, and that this may in turn lead to differences in Dark Triad trait development [5]. These relationships were correlational, so more research is needed to determine whether we’re looking at direct causes.

Although attachment styles may increase our vulnerability to developing Dark Triad traits, it’s important to note that they don’t determine them – you can have an insecure attachment without having Dark Triad traits, or, you could have Dark Triad traits without attachment insecurity.

Avoidant Attachment and Dark Triad Traits

The avoidant attachment style has been correlated with psychopathy and Machiavellianism [5], [6]. It makes sense that attachment avoidance was not correlated with narcissism, as narcissism inherently involves a reliance on others for validation, which goes against the avoidant tendency to be self-sufficient.

However, all 3 Dark Triad traits share a tendency to put oneself first. It’s possible that avoidance correlated with Machiavellianism and psychopathy because we also tend to focus on ourselves and worry less about others’ needs when we’re avoidant, but more research would be needed to investigate this theory.

Researchers have suggested that a lack of anxiety about rejection and denial about the need for close relationships are the reasons for the connection between psychopathy and attachment avoidance [7].

Fearful Avoidant Attachment and Dark Triad

The fearful-avoidant attachment style has been correlated with both types of psychopathy and Machiavellianism, which we might expect given the connections these have to both the anxious and avoidant attachment styles.

The connection is more complicated between fearful-avoidance and narcissism, where fearful-avoidance appears to be weakly related to a higher likelihood of some subtypes of narcissism and lower likelihood of others.

Secure Attachment and Dark Triad

Interestingly, narcissism has been weakly linked to attachment security, as well as higher quality parental care from the father but lower quality parental care from the mother [5]. The authors of this study suggested that a good father-child relationship might activate self-sufficient behavior relating to success and achievement, which could be linked to some dimensions of narcissism.

Attachment security was also associated with lower likelihood of psychopathy and Machiavellianism.

Anxious Attachment and Dark Triad Traits

The anxious attachment style has been correlated with Machiavellianism and secondary psychopathy [5], [6]. Secondary psychopathy is psychopathy that is driven by emotional dysregulation and anxiety, thought to develop from adverse environments [8].

Emotional dysregulation is also characteristic of attachment anxiety, so it’s no surprise that it correlated with secondary psychopathy. The connection between attachment anxiety and Machiavellianism is less clear – it could be that attachment anxiety might drive people to manipulate others to keep them close, but, again, more research would be needed to examine this idea.

How Insecure Attachment Leads to Dark Triad Expression

One study on the link between Dark Triad traits and attachment styles conducted a path analysis, which aims to show directional relationships between one thing and another [5]. In this analysis, quality of care from the mother had the most impact on attachment styles (all 3 insecure styles linked to lower quality care, secure attachment style linked to higher quality care).

Only the secure and fearful-avoidant attachment styles showed a directional effect on Dark Triad traits. Secure attachment patterns led to lower likelihood of Machiavellianism, secondary psychopathy, and entitlement (measured as a dimension of narcissism. Fearful-avoidant attachment patterns led to higher likelihood of Machiavellianism.

The researchers on this study suggest that Dark Triad traits could be an adaptive response to poor parental care, but this theory needs further investigation.

Dark Triad Traits in Relationships

People high in Dark Triad traits might seek close relationships because they provide a material or emotional benefit, rather than to experience genuine intimacy. Anecdotally, people scoring high on Dark Triad traits describe how they might manipulate situations to gain closeness to others by strategically revealing vulnerabilities or driving a wedge between other relationships.

Short-Term Relationships and Superficial Connections

Since they prefer to avoid genuine intimacy, people scoring highly on the Dark Triad might be more likely to choose short-term relationships and superficial connections over long-term, deep intimacy. Their relationships might even serve instrumental purposes, such as social or professional advantages.

How to Spot Key Behaviors in Dark Triad Personality Traits

Spotting Dark Triad traits in a relationship can be difficult at first, because people high on these traits can be very charming and good at hiding them. Further, because these traits are on a spectrum, we might sometimes engage in them more than other times, e.g. when social pressure demands it.

Since Dark Triad traits aren’t diagnosable, we shouldn’t try to label the people in our lives based on a check-list of behavior. However, we can use behavioral signs to better understand the Dark Triad overall.

Dark Triad Examples and Behavioral Red Flags

Examples of Dark Triad behaviors include:

• Self-centeredness and lack of genuine interest in others
• Frequent lying and deception
• Lack of empathy and compassion
• Boundary violations and pushing limits
• Unnecessary risk-taking without regard for consequences
• Superficial charm that feels performative

Remember, this isn’t a checklist and shouldn’t be used to attempt to label your partner – rather, it should be used as a tool to help you reflect on your partner’s behavior. The behaviors on this list can happen for lots of different reasons – focus on the outcomes and how it makes you feel. A therapist can help you to understand and evaluate your relationship dynamics.

How Dark Triad Traits Show Up Differently in Men and Women

Both men and women can show Dark Triad traits, though men tend to have higher Dark Triad scores than women [9]. Dark Triad traits may show up slightly differently: lower empathy has been associated with greater psychopathy in men, but greater narcissism in women [9].

The Dark Side of Touch: Aversion and Coercion

One study on Dark Triad traits, attachment, and touch found interesting gender differences [10]. In men, avoidant attachment was linked with touch aversion, while anxious attachment was linked with coercive touch (touch used to control or manipulate), but neither experiences of touch were linked to Dark Triad traits.

In contrast, for women, higher Dark Triad traits were related to higher touch aversion and higher coercive touch. Attachment avoidance was still associated with touch aversion.

How to Set Boundaries and Protect Yourself from Dark Triad Individuals

If somebody in your life displays manipulative, deceptive, or unkind behavior – regardless of psychological labels – it’s important to set boundaries and look after yourself first. Boundaries should outline how you’ll respond to behavior you won’t accept, rather than how someone else should behave.

For example, simply asking somebody not to lie to you might not work long-term, but communicating with someone that if they lie to you, you will end the conversation abruptly (for example), can help you to maintain your self-esteem and expectations of others. It’s important to stick to your boundaries if they’ve been crossed, even if it comes with feelings of guilt or anxiety.

If your partner is repeatedly crossing boundaries or behaving in ways that make you feel anxious or unsafe, visit thehotline.org for domestic abuse resources and support.

Can Dark Triad Traits Change?

Personality traits can change over time, but you cannot change your partner. People with high Dark Triad traits may not want to change; they may view their traits as an advantage and are unlikely to worry about the effect it has on their relationships.

However, if someone with Dark Triad traits does want to change, a mental health practitioner could help them to understand their behaviors and learn more empathic approaches.

Conclusion

The Dark Triad is a set of 3 overlapping but distinct personality traits associated with negative, calculated social behavior. Researchers have suggested that even more traits should be included in the same category.

The Dark Triad is not a clinical diagnosis, and specifically does not include people with related personality disorders under its umbrella. The Dark Triad is intended to help psychologists measure narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism in non-clinical populations.

Your attachment style may be related to your Dark Triad traits, as both can be influenced by your upbringing. However, Dark Triad traits are likely to be more difficult to change than attachment styles because people high in Dark Triad traits are not likely to want to change.

If someone you care about shows behaviors related to Dark Triad traits, prioritize your own wellbeing and safety and practice setting boundaries.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is the Dark Triad linked to attachment styles?

Dark Triad traits have been linked with attachment styles – avoidance with primary psychopathy, anxiety with secondary psychopathy, and both with Machiavellianism. This doesn’t imply that one causes the other.

Are Dark Triad traits the same as personality disorders?

Dark Triad traits are explicitly not the same as personality disorders. The Dark Triad is intended to help psychologists measure these traits in non-clinical populations, so it’s not a clinical diagnosis in itself and those with personality disorders should consider their symptoms separately to the Dark Triad conceptualization.

How common are Dark Triad traits?

Since Dark Triad traits are spectrum traits, all of us fall somewhere on this scale. One study found that 7% of its 35,270 participants could be classed as falling into a “dark” personality type.

What is the D-Factor in Dark Triad?

The “D-Factor” is a different conceptualization of dark personality traits, capturing 6 more traits in addition to the Dark Triad: sadism, self-interest, spitefulness, egoism, moral disengagement, and psychological entitlement.

Why is dark triad attractive?

People high on Dark Triad traits can be very charming because they score highly on manipulation and low on empathy; this means they might tell you what you want to hear to get you on their side, even if it’s morally wrong.

References

1. Neumann CS, Kaufman SB, ten Brinke L, Yaden DB, Hyde E, Tsykayama E. Light and dark trait subtypes of human personality–A multi-study person-centered approach. Personality and Individual Differences. 2020 Oct 1;164:110121.
2. Paulhus DL, Williams KM. The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of research in personality. 2002 Dec 1;36(6):556-63.
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Text rev. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Association; 2022
4. Moshagen M, Hilbig BE, Zettler I. The dark core of personality. Psychological review. 2018 Oct;125(5):656.
5. Jonason PK, Lyons M, Bethell E. The making of Darth Vader: Parent–child care and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences. 2014 Sep 1;67:30-4.
6. Kyranides MN, Neofytou L. Primary and secondary psychopathic traits: The role of attachment and cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Personality and Individual Differences. 2021 Nov 1;182:111106.
7. Monteiro CQ, Simões M, Relva IC. Exploring the relationship between psychopathy and close relationships in a sample of young Portuguese adults. Current Psychology. 2024 Oct;43(38):29972-83.
8. Sethi A, McCrory E, Puetz V, Hoffmann F, Knodt AR, Radtke SR, Brigidi BD, Hariri AR, Viding E. Primary and secondary variants of psychopathy in a volunteer sample are associated with different neurocognitive mechanisms. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 2018 Dec 1;3(12):1013-21.
9. Bloxsom CA, Firth J, Kibowski F, Egan V, Sumich AL, Heym N. Dark shadow of the self: How the dark triad and empathy impact parental and intimate adult attachment relationships in women. Forensic Science International: Mind and Law. 2021 Nov 1;2:100045.
10. Ives ER, Jules BN, Anduze SL, Wagner S, Mattson RE. The dark side of touch: how attachment style impacts touch through dark triad personality traits. Current Psychology. 2025 Oct;44(19):15767-80.